“Wild Calais!” began in the spring of 2025, when Calais Tree Warden and Conservation Commissioner Neal Maker composed a series of articles on Calais conservation design and the elements that make up our rich natural environment. They were originally posted to Front Porch Forum and can be enjoyed below.
Keeping Our Landscape Healthy and Resilient
Vermont’s forests, rivers, and fields aren’t just beautiful—they form a living, interconnected system that supports us and all the plants and animals we share this land with. It’s important that we maintain the ecological functioning of our landscape so that it continues to support critical natural processes.
That’s the premise behind the Vermont Conservation Design—a science-based approach to identifying and conserving Vermont’s most important natural areas, to keep our ecosystems functioning for the next 100 years and beyond.
An ecologically functional landscape includes:
- Large, unbroken forests where wildlife like bobcats, bears, and songbirds can thrive.
- Connected landscapes that allow animals, plants, and fungi to move and adapt as the climate changes.
- Healthy rivers, wetlands, and floodplains that keep our water clean and reduce flooding.
- A variety of geological features and landforms that support different ecosystems. Special habitats like vernal pools and grasslands that shelter rare and threatened species.
The sections below will break down these pieces of Vermont’s conservation puzzle—what they are, why they matter, and how they apply here in Calais. Next up: Why interior forest habitats are so important and how we can keep them intact.
Large, Connected Forests – Why They Matter
Not all forests are created equal. Small woodlots and roadside trees provide some habitat, but large, unbroken forests—called Interior Forest Blocks—support a far greater diversity of species and allow natural processes to play out more fully.
In larger forests, species like black bears, bobcats, and deep-woods songbirds can thrive without the pressures of roads, development, and human disturbance. These forests also store carbon, regulate water cycles, and give plants and animals room to adapt to changing conditions.
But not all interior forests are the same. Vermont’s geologic diversity—from limestone valleys to granite ridges—creates a wide range of soil types, moisture levels, and growing conditions. Keeping these diverse landscapes connected ensures that as the climate shifts, species can move to find the habitats they need.
Connectivity is key to maintaining ecological functioning. Even the largest forest blocks can’t function in isolation. Wildlife needs to move, seeds need to disperse, and natural communities need space to shift over time. But roads, buildings, and clearings can break these connections, leaving species trapped in shrinking, isolated patches.
The Vermont Conservation Design prioritizes keeping large forests intact and connected so that Vermont’s natural landscapes continue to support wildlife, clean air and water, and ecological resilience for generations to come.
Take a look at the BioFinder map to see where the important interior forests and habitat connections are near you: https://anr.vermont.gov/maps-and-mapping/biofinder
Life Along the Water – Calais’ Streams, Ponds, and Wetlands
If you want to find the richest variety of life in Calais, look to the water. Our waterways and wetlands are the most biodiverse habitats in town, providing homes for fish, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and myriad plants. Nearly all of Calais’s known rare, threatened, and endangered species are found in wetlands, ponds, or streams. Our riparian areas—the vegetated edges along streams and ponds—are also indispensable: supporting shore-dwellers like otters, minks, wood turtles, and kingfishers, and providing some of the best wildlife travel corridors.
These areas do more than just host wildlife. Naturally vegetated streambanks stabilize soil, reduce erosion, and filter sediment and pollutants before they reach our waterways. Trees and shrubs along streambanks shade the water, keeping it cool for species like brook trout, and drop leaves and branches that become food and shelter for aquatic life. Wetlands store large volumes of water, prevent downstream flooding, and help recharge groundwater. Many wetlands also have deep organic soils that developed over millennia from accumulating plant matter, which store huge amounts of carbon and keep it out of the atmosphere.
Historical land use practices had a big impact on our aquatic ecosystems. In the 1800s many streams were straightened and channelized and many wetlands were converted to pastures. Beavers were also trapped and eliminated from Vermont. They have returned now, but their impact is much reduced. Before European colonization, beavers shaped many of our stream valleys into extensive, shifting mosaics of ponds, wetlands, and regenerating meadows—slowing water, storing it, and creating diverse habitat.
Take a look at this map of Calais’ waterways, which includes property lines so you can see how your land relates: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dV7t5WhT9gFwuevZ3KzSKlIU_Mc-oIfx/view?usp=drive_link
Next in the series: How old forests—and the special features they hold—support forest health and biodiversity.
Natural Communities of Calais
If you’ve ever wondered why certain plants, animals, or fungi show up in some places but not others, it all comes down to their unique needs—things like soil type, moisture, temperature, and other species nearby. While each species has its own story, they often form predictable patterns, gathering in natural communities that reflect the character of the land.
Take rich northern hardwood forests, for example. These grow where nutrient-rich soils collect, often at the bases of hillsides over limestone bedrock. Sugar maple, white ash, and basswood thrive here, and calcium-loving wild leeks, trout lilies, and wood nettles often carpet the ground. In turn, these plants support ground-nesting mining bees, red admiral butterflies, and hermit thrushes.
Ecologists use recurring patterns like this to map out distinct natural community types. It’s a human framework, but a helpful one—it allows us to understand and protect biodiversity more effectively. By conserving a variety of natural communities, we ensure homes for a wide range of species, even ones we aren’t monitoring directly.
Think of Calais like a scoop of moose tracks ice cream. The vanilla base—northern hardwood forest—covers most of town. Winding through it are ribbons of shrub swamp along streams and cool, shaded hemlock forests along northwest-facing slopes. Scattered throughout are “chunks” of rich northern hardwoods, marsh-fringed ponds, fens, and forested wetlands. Vernal pools and woodland seeps dot the woods like flecks of chocolate. And in a few rugged corners, cliffs and rocky talus woodlands add a surprise crunch—like stray pieces of heath bar left in the mix.
Understanding these natural communities can help us protect what’s most important in each, while still using the land to provide for ourselves, so we can thrive alongside our non-human neighbors.
Old Forests – Past and Future
Before European settlers arrived, old-growth forests covered about three quarters of what is now Calais. These forests were shaped by natural disturbances from wind, ice, insects, and disease outbreaks. Selective tree harvesting, plant cultivation, and limited clearing by the Abenaki and their ancestors probably influenced the forests in subtle ways too. The forests were constantly changing, shaped by the variable climate, soil development, and evolving species.
Today, those old forests are almost completely gone. The small fragments that remain grow in very wet or steep areas that farmers and loggers have avoided. The forests we see now mostly grew on fields cleared by settlers and later abandoned. Unfortunately, these newer forests lack some key features that are important for biodiversity and ecological health, including:
- Mature trees with fissured bark and complex crowns, which support insects, epiphytic plants, and foraging animals, while also storing large amounts of carbon and reducing climate change impacts.
- Large standing dead trees with cavities and peeling bark, which offer shelter and food for wildlife.
- Abundant dead wood on the forest floor that feeds decomposers, shelters amphibians and small mammals, and provides germination sites for new trees.
- Diverse canopy densities and tree sizes, creating varied habitats for different species and helping forests recover quickly after disturbances.
- Undisturbed leaf litter and soils, which absorb and filter water, store nutrients, and support a rich soil ecosystem.
While we can’t fully restore the pre-settlement landscape, we can work toward creating ecological reserves in key areas where tomorrow’s old forests can develop. We can also incorporate old-forest characteristics into our managed forests. This approach recognizes that we are a part of the forest ecosystem—not separate from it—and helps support ecosystems and services that benefit wildlife and humans alike.
Next, we will discuss the importance of young regenerating forests, which are also in short supply and essential for many declining species.
Young Forests
As we explored last week, old forests are much less common in the Northeast than they once were. Ironically, the same is true of young forests. In Calais, there were probably about 900 acres of young forest—less than 15 to 20 years old—at any given time before European settlement. Today, that figure has shrunk to fewer than 200 acres.
Young forests are vital for many animals because their dense low-growing vegetation provides cover, nesting sites, and foraging opportunities. They serve as safe havens for small mammals and critical breeding areas for many birds. Migratory songbirds, in particular, are suffering from the loss of young forest habitat in the Northeast. Many species are seeing dramatic population declines because they lack the brushy low cover needed to raise their young. For example, populations of Canada warblers and white-throated sparrows—two species that breed in young forests—declined by 62% and 72% in the 25 years between 1989 and 2013.
Both the Vermont Conservation Design and Audubon Vermont agree that we should aim to restore young forests to about 5% of our total forested acreage. In Calais, this would require a five-fold increase in the current amount of young forest. Historically, young forests were created when natural disturbances like wind, ice storms, and beaver flooding created regenerating openings in the forest. Those disturbances are less common today, and most young forests are created by logging or when old fields are abandoned.
Humans often prefer mature forests with clear understories and tidy fields free of brush, which can get in the way of creating young forest habitat. Common approaches to creating young forest habitat include cutting trees to create new canopy openings and mowing fields less frequently to keep them brushy. Intentional management strategies like these can be effective, but they must be done correctly to provide the right habitat conditions and to avoid disrupting sensitive natural communities.
Vernal Pools: Tiny Ecosystems, Big Impact
The spring amphibian migration is about to begin. [Note: This was posted to Front Porch Forum on April 14.] This week, many frogs and salamanders will be trekking back to the vernal pools where they were born. Watch for them on warm, rainy nights.
Wood frogs and spotted salamanders rely on vernal pools to breed successfully. These seasonal wetlands dry out in summer, which prevents predatory fish from living in them and eating amphibian eggs. Several fairy shrimp species also depend on the fish-free conditions. Their egg-like cysts can lie dormant for decades, waiting for the right spring conditions to hatch. Fairy shrimp live only a few weeks, breeding and producing new cysts before dying off in mid-May. Fingernail clams thrive in vernal pools too, burrowing into the soil during dry periods and emerging in spring to feed on plankton and detritus. Clams and shrimp both filter nutrients out of the water, but clams suck water through their gills using siphons and shrimp use their feathery legs to fan water into their mouths.
Vernal pools are sensitive to disturbance—and so are the surrounding forests, where frogs and salamanders spend most of their adult lives. These areas are sometimes called “amphibian life zones.” Amphibians need moist, shady forests with plenty of dead wood on the ground, so clearing or intensive logging in these zones is discouraged.
Because vernal pools are small and seasonal, they’re easy to overlook—and easy to destroy through development, trail building, and logging, often without anyone realizing. That’s why it’s so important to identify and map them. In Calais, 131 potential pools have been mapped using aerial photos, but only 34 have been confirmed by visiting them during the spring breeding season. You can explore them here: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1efZmb1MiGOTm6b28mpOrSkg-2VdZkSHr/view?usp=sharing.
We try to visit a few pools each spring—and only with landowner permission. If you’d like to help with the inventory, contact Neal at nealmaker@gmail.com. Some training is required, but it’s a great way to meet your slimy neighbors!